Rothbart And Bates Temperament Categories

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Dev Psychol. Author manuscript; bachelor in PMC 2009 Nov 5.

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PMCID: PMC2773664

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Temperament and Externalizing Behavior: Social Preference and Perceived Acceptance as Protective Factors

Louise Eastward. Berdan

Section of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Susan P. Keane

Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro

Susan D. Calkins

Departments of Human Development and Family Studies and Psychology, University of Northward Carolina at Greensboro

Abstruse

The purpose of this study was to explore the role of social preference and perceived acceptance as moderators of the relation between kid temperament and externalizing behavior. Participants included 399 children evaluated at pre-kindergarten and kindergarten assessments. Pre-kindergarten children characterized by high temperamental Surgency/Extraversion were more likely to exhibit hyperactivity and aggression in the kindergarten classroom. In improver, kindergarten perceived acceptance and social preference moderated the relation between pre-kindergarten Surgency/Extraversion and kindergarten hyperactivity for girls only. Girls who were characterized by high temperamental Surgency/Extraversion, loftier perceived acceptance, and depression social preference were at risk for higher levels of teacher-reported and peer-nominated hyperactivity. In contrast, accurately high perceived acceptance was a protective cistron for high temperamental Surgency/Extraversion. Findings are discussed in terms of risk and protective factors for externalizing behavior.

Keywords: temperament, Surgency/Extraversion, externalizing, peer acceptance

Temperament is thought to be a relatively stable construct that helps to predict how children react to and manage their environments (Rothbart & Bates, 2006). Thus, temperament is key to the understanding of adaptive and maladaptive childhood functioning. Studies examining the influence of temperament on adjustment consistently notice modest straight effects of early on temperament dimensions such as negativity, resistance to control, and activity level on the display of externalizing, or acting out beliefs problems, at later ages (Bates, Bayles, Bennett, Ridge, & Brown, 1991; Calkins & Degnan, 2006; Caspi, Henry, McGee, Moffitt, & Silva, 1995; Prior, Smart, Sanson, Pedlow, & Oberklaid, 1992; Shaw, Owens, Giovannelli, & Winslow, 2001). These modest upshot sizes suggest that other factors likely moderate the relation between temperament and aligning. That is, child temperament may interact with environmental factors to predict babyhood outcomes such as externalizing behavior.

Temperament

The construct of temperament is commonly viewed as the basic system of personality, which is appreciable equally early as infancy and becomes elaborated over the course of development as the private's skills, abilities, cognitions, and motivations become more than sophisticated (Calkins & Degnan, 2006; Rothbart, Ahadi, & Evans, 2000; Rothbart & Bates, 2006; Shiner & Caspi, 2003). Although temperament is thought to influence the development and expression of personality characteristics, Rothbart and Bates (2006) qualified this relation with the assertion that temperament focuses on reactive and self-regulatory processes and is merely one component of a child's developing personality.

A large trunk of inquiry has focused on the role of temperament in predicting maladjustment such as externalizing behavior. Sanson, Prior, and Kyrios (1990), however, accept argued that content overlap betwixt temperament and measures of maladjustment may business relationship for empirical findings. In dissimilarity, Rothbart and Bates (2006) ended that content overlap in measurement could non account for enquiry findings. For example, the relation between temperament and behavior problems was not affected after removing items with similar content (Lemery, Essex, & Smider, 2002). A handling-outcome study reached a similar conclusion, as the treatment resulted in decreased behavior problems without a change in temperament (Sheeber, 1995). Thus, examining the relation between temperament and beliefs problems provides meaningful information, as temperament and behavior problems are unique constructs.

Although many categories of temperamental behavioral styles take been established with respect to childhood temperament, Rothbart and Putnam'due south (2002) temperamental dimensions have been the focus of many empirical studies. Rothbart'southward theory—which has been instrumental to the field and has guided much temperament inquiry—conceptualizes temperament as structured into three broad clusters (Rothbart, 1988; Rothbart & Bates, 1998, 2006; Rothbart & Putnam, 2002). The 3 temperamental clusters identified using a measure out of childhood temperament (the Child Behavior Questionnaire; CBQ; Rothbart & Putnam, 2002) are Surgency/Extraversion, Negative Affectivity, and Effortful Control. Surgency/Extraversion is characterized by high action level, loftier-intensity pleasance seeking, depression shyness, and impulsivity. Negative Affectivity is characterized by sadness, discomfort, frustration, fearfulness, and difficulty to soothe (Rothbart & Putnam, 2002). Finally, Effortful Command encompasses inhibitory control, attentional focusing, depression-intensity pleasure, and perceptual sensitivity (Rothbart & Putnam, 2002).

Surgency/Extraversion, Negative Affectivity, and Effortful Control have been examined together and separately to empathize the relation betwixt temperament and behavior, with the majority of the research focusing on Negative Affectivity and Effortful Control. Negative Affectivity is thought to be a mark of emotional dysregulation that predisposes children to externalizing beliefs problems (Oldehinkel, Hartman, de Winter, Veenstra, & Ormel, 2004; Rothbart, Ahadi, Hershey, & Fisher, 2001; Sanson, Hemphill, & Smart, 2004). Children with high Negative Affectivity become hands frustrated, which tin lead to a pattern of acrimony, irritability, or assailment. In contrast, children with high Effortful Control are able to modulate their beliefs and inhibit the dominant, impulsive response (Olson, Sameroff, Kerr, Lopez, & Wellman, 2005). Thus, these children have the ability to use attentional control and other coping strategies to monitor and adjust their behavior. As such, Effortful Command has been positively related to social competence and negatively related to externalizing behavior and anger amongst preschoolers (Blair, Denham, Kochanoff, & Whipple, 2004; Olson et al., 2005).

Although there are numerous studies linking Negative Affectivity and Effortful Command to behavior problems, there are relatively few studies examining Surgency/Extraversion. At that place is, notwithstanding, some theoretical and empirical support for examining Surgency/Extraversion as a risk gene for the evolution of externalizing problems, including hyperactivity and aggression. Although children with moderate levels of Surgency/Extraversion could be characterized as outgoing and interested in their environment, children with high levels of Surgency/Extraversion could be characterized equally highly active and constantly exploring their environment with disregard for rules and regulations on their behavior. This high approach tendency can result in frustration when goals are blocked, as evidenced past the relation betwixt Surgency/Extraversion and frustration (Rothbart, Derryberry, & Hershey, 2000). For example, young children high on Surgency/Extraversion accept been shown to utilize aggressive strategies to overcome barriers when seeking something perceived as highly rewarding (Rothbart & Putnam, 2002). Children with high levels of Surgency/Extraversion may have difficulty regulating their distress when faced with disappointment, resulting in acting out behavior. Moreover, these uninhibited or "exuberant" children are low on internalizing and reticence, which would presumably buffer against their acting out beliefs (Fox, Henderson, Rubin, Calkins, & Schmidt, 2001).

With respect to empirical enquiry, Surgency/Extraversion has been constitute to predict aggression in preschool and early childhood (Gunnar, Sebanc, Tout, Donzella, & van Dulmen, 2003; Rothbart et al. 2001) and externalizing behavior in early childhood (Mervielde, De Clercq, De Fruyt, & Van Leeuwen, 2005). Using a similar measure termed "social boldness," Rimm-Kaufman et al. (2002) found this bold behavioral way was related to off-chore kindergarten behavior. Also, the temperamental characteristic of high-intensity pleasure, which is one aspect of Surgency/Extraversion, has been related to the evolution of externalizing problems in preadolescence (Oldehinkel et al., 2004). Moreover, high action level in middle childhood, which is some other aspect of Surgency/Extraversion, was associated with attending-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, combined type (Bussing et al., 2003).

Despite testify for a straight link between early temperamental Surgency/Extraversion and children'south externalizing behavior, in that location are all the same many children who overcome take a chance factors associated with their temperament to become well adjusted (Maziade, 1994). Although the mechanisms are unclear, these children are presumably able to utilize other emotional, social, cognitive, and ecology resources to redirect their temperamental tendencies to engage in more than appropriate beliefs. Rothbart and Putnam (2002) suggested that a child's temperament as information technology interacts with the environment is probable a better predictor of developmental outcomes than temperament alone. Factors such every bit parenting and family stress have been examined (e.g., Paterson & Sanson, 1999; Maziade et al., 1990); however, the majority of these studies accept focused on the preschool period when parents are typically the chief influence on their kid'due south behavior. As children develop, other environments brainstorm to exert more than influence on children's behavior. In particular, as children enter kindergarten, the peer environment becomes increasingly important (Buhrmester, 1996). Peers may help highly active children recognize when their behavior is non adequate, and conversely peers may aid to reinforce appropriate behavior. Thus, the goal of this study is to improve understand the role of the peer environment—specifically, peer acceptance (i.e., social preference) and perceived acceptance (i.e., a child's own rating of his or her acceptance)—as information technology relates to externalizing behavior in children who showroom high Surgency/Extraversion.

Peer Relationships equally a Protective Factor

The role of the peer environment has been thought to exist an important predictor of whether a child is able to successfully redirect at-hazard characteristics to more positive behavior (Keogh, 2003). Although at that place is theoretical back up for examining a supportive peer environment, the protective office of peers has not been examined equally it relates to temperament. Information technology is known, however, that having positive peer relationships is predictive of positive outcomes, including better social skills, better conflict-resolution skills (Newcomb & Bagwell, 1996), more cooperative behavior, less disruptive behavior (Coie, Contrivance, & Coppotelli, 1982), and an overall positive cocky-concept (Vandell & Hembree, 1994). Furthermore, in that location are many deleterious outcomes linked to peer rejection, such as poor school aligning (Ladd, Kochenderfer, & Coleman, 1997) and aggression during early on and middle babyhood (Dodge et al., 2003). Difficult temperamental characteristics have also been associated with peer rejection. For example, Gunnar et al. (2003) completed a path assay that revealed that high preschool Surgency/Extraversion predicted classroom aggression, which in turn predicted peer rejection.

Despite the relation between temperament and peer relationships and the relation between peer acceptance (i.e., social preference) and later on adjustment, the extent to which peer acceptance acts as a buffer against (i.eastward., moderates) early on risk factors (i.e., hard temperament) is non well established. Recent empirical evidence, notwithstanding, does support the hypothesized protective effects of peer acceptance. For example, peer credence has been establish to be a protective factor for early on aggression, family adversity, and child maltreatment (Bolger, Patterson, & Kupersmidt, 1998; Criss, Pettit, Bates, Dodge, & Lapp, 2002; Prinstein & La Greca, 2004).

Perceived Acceptance

Although peer acceptance tin exist protective and peer rejection is a gamble factor for later behavior problems, particularly for children with other individual and environmental risk factors, the rejected status group is heterogeneous (Boivin & Begin, 1989; Cillessen, van IJzendoorn, van Lieshout, & Hartup, 1992), making the exploration of individual differences important. 1 such factor theorized to influence kid beliefs is children's interpretation of their acceptance (Bellmore & Cillessen, 2003; Cillessen & Bellmore, 1999; Furman, 1996; Hymel & Franke, 1985; Hymel, Franke, & Freigang, 1985). Self-perception theory dates back to Cooley'southward (1902) theoretical book, where he argued that self-perceptions stem from people's behavior about how others view them, but these perceptions are not e'er accurate. Equally such, perceived and actual peer acceptance do not always coincide (Boivin & Begin, 1989; Hymel, Bowker, & Woody, 1993; Patterson, Kupersmidt, & Griesler, 1990). For instance, rejected children tend to overestimate their acceptance, whereas pop and average children tend to underestimate their acceptance (Patterson et al., 1990). With respect to rejected status heterogeneity, aggressive–rejected children accept less accurate perceived acceptance compared to nonaggressive–rejected children (Zakriski & Coie, 1996).

It is possible that rejected children take fewer social opportunities on which to base of operations their perceived acceptance, making it difficult for these children to develop authentic perceptions (Cillessen & Bellmore, 1999); however, this doesn't fully explain why aggressive–rejected children are less accurate than nonaggressive–rejected children. Hughes, Cavell, and Grossman (1997) hypothesized that ambitious children take an inaccurately loftier perceived acceptance as a defensive machinery against feeling bad most rejection, thus impeding their motivation and power to improve their aggressive beliefs. Likewise, Baumeister, Smart, and Boden (1996) theorized that aggressive children might be less probable to internalize negative feedback from peers—resulting in lowered and more accurate perceived acceptance—because it would threaten their loftier perceptions, resulting in ignoring potentially helpful behavioral feedback. Consequent with these assertions, an inflated perceived credence has consistently been found to relate to behavior problems in early and middle childhood (David & Kistner, 2000; Guerra, Asher, & DeRosier, 2004; Hughes, Cavell, & Grossman, 1997; Hymel et al., 1993).

Another proposed mechanism is that social cerebral deficits account for inaccurate perceptions and concurrently influence child behavior (Cillessen & Bellmore, 1999). Social information-processing deficits, and in particular hostile attribution biases, have been associated with aggressive beliefs (Crick & Contrivance, 1996). Moreover, peer rejection was related to the growth in aggression across elementary school, and this relation was partially mediated by social data-processing deficits (Dodge et al., 2003). The association between assailment and social cognitive deficits suggests that aggressive children may not perceive their environments accurately, which would hinder their ability to perceive feedback from peers about the appropriateness of their behavior. Whereas assailment and perceived credence take been examined as they relate to behavioral outcomes, these aforementioned mechanisms accept not been examined with respect to temperament and perceived acceptance. Thus, one goal of the current study is to extend the literature on child perceptions by examining their relation to temperament and later on behavioral functioning.

Research Goals and Hypotheses

Temperament is idea to be a full general behavioral tendency that tin can be redirected on the ground of ecology circumstances (Rothbart & Bates, 2006). Agreement what factors can assist a child redirect early on, hard temperamental characteristics to more advisable behavior will add to the existing literature. Test of protective factors over the transition to kindergarten is particularly important due to the relative instability of behavior problems every bit compared to later ages (Campbell, 1997; Smith, Calkins, Keane, Anastopoulos, & Shelton, 2004). For instance, Campbell (1997) found that about half of children continued to accept behavior problems as they transitioned to school, and one-half improved. This study sought to examine the relation between the child's perceived credence and social preference as they moderate the relation between pre-kindergarten temperamental risk (i.e., Surgency/Extraversion) and kindergarten externalizing behavior.

Given that perceived acceptance and social preference are primarily based on interactions with peers at school, externalizing behavior exhibited in the classroom is the focus of the current study. In add-on, there are theoretical reasons for examining gender differences, as the quality of peer relationships differs by gender. For example, girls have more than social skills, fewer behavior bug, and more intimate friendships (Blyth & Foster-Clark, 1987; Criss et al., 2002; Smith et al., 2004). These human relationship factors may permit peer acceptance to provide greater protective effects for girls. Moreover, empirical work supports differential protective effects based on the gender of the child (Crosnoe, Erickson, & Dornbusch, 2002; Formoso, Gonzales, & Aiken, 2000; Gerard & Buehler, 2004). Thus, gender differences are examined.

Four specific research questions were addressed in the present study:

1. Does early temperamental Surgency/Extraversion predict externalizing beliefs (i.due east., hyperactivity and aggression)?

2. What is the relation between perceived credence and social preference?

3. Do perceived acceptance and social preference collaborate with Surgency/Extraversion to predict externalizing behavior?

4. Are the protective furnishings of social preference and perceived credence like for boys and girls?

Consequent with previous research, we expected that pre-kindergarten Surgency/Extraversion would predict kindergarten externalizing behavior. Furthermore, we expected perceived acceptance and social preference to be unrelated. They were expected, still, to collaborate with pre-kindergarten Surgency/Extraversion to predict kindergarten externalizing beliefs. More specifically, we hypothesized that low social preference and high perceived acceptance (i.e., reporting an exaggerated perceived credence) in combination with high Surgency/Extraversion would be associated with higher hyperactivity and aggression. Finally, we expected that moderation would exist stronger for girls.

Method

Participants

The current sample (n = 399) uses data from three cohorts of children who are part of an ongoing, longitudinal study that began when children were 2 years of age. The goal of the larger longitudinal report is to understand trajectories of externalizing behavior as they relate to children'due south social and emotional development. The electric current study focuses on children's peer relations as they relate to early on temperament and later externalizing behavior. The goal for recruitment of all three cohorts was to obtain a sample of children with a range of beliefs problems, some of whom were at risk for developing futurity externalizing behavior problems, that was representative of the surrounding community in terms of race and socioeconomic status (SES). All cohorts were recruited through child day care centers, the county wellness department, and the local Women, Infants, and Children plan. Potential participants for Cohorts 1 and two were recruited at 2 years of age (Cohort 1: 1994–1996; Cohort 2: 2000–2001) and screened using the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL 2–three; Achenbach, 1992), which was completed past the mother to oversample for externalizing beliefs problems. Children were identified as being at risk for future externalizing behaviors if they received an externalizing T-score of 60 or above. Children who received externalizing T-scores below 60 were also selected to ensure that a range of behavior problems was represented. A total of 307 children were selected.

Cohort 3 was initially recruited when infants were 6 months of age (in 1998) for their level of frustration on the basis of laboratory ascertainment and parent report and followed through the toddler flow (see Calkins, Dedmon, Gill, Lomax, & Johnson, 2002, for more information). Children whose mothers completed the CBCL at ii years of age were included in the current report (n = 140). Of the entire sample (N = 447; 215 boys, 232 girls), 37% of the children were identified as being at risk for future externalizing problems (T ≥ sixty on the CBCL; Achenbach, 1992). There were no significant demographic differences betwixt cohorts with regard to gender, minority status (i.e., Caucasian vs. non-Caucasian), or 2-year SES.

The electric current study focused on the pre-kindergarten (pre-grand) and kindergarten assessments. At the pre-k assessment, 399 families participated. Families lost to attrition included those who could non be located, had moved out of the area, declined participation, or did not respond to telephone and letter requests to participate. At the kindergarten assessment, 365 families participated, including four who did not participate in the pre-k assessment.

But participants with complete data for all variables of interest were included in analyses (n = 200; ninety boys). Considering multiple assessments were conducted with mothers, children, teachers, and peers in multiple contexts (e.grand., laboratory, classroom), consummate data were non available for all participants. Information were missing considering parents or principals did non give consent for the school assessment, schools were too far away to conduct a schoolhouse assessment, teachers did not complete questionnaires, and families did non complete both the pre-k and the kindergarten laboratory assessments. The children with consummate data for the current written report were primarily from intact families (77%), and families were economically various, with Hollingshead (1975) scores ranging from 17 to 65 (1000 = 43.96). 60-five percentage were European American, 29% were African American, 4% were biracial, and two% were Hispanic. There were no significant differences between families who were and were not included in analyses in terms of gender, minority condition, 2-year SES, or 2-year externalizing T-score. In addition, there were no significant differences between families who were and were non included in analyses in terms of the 9 master variables examined. Similarly, in that location were no demographic or study variable differences for participants excluded due solely to missing information at the kindergarten cess. Merely 3 participants were excluded due solely to missing data at the pre-k cess.

Although we oversampled for externalizing behavior problems at 2 years, the variables examined in the current written report take a skilful distribution that seems to exist representative of a community sample. For example, the average T-scores for hyperactivity and aggression were both approximately at the 50th percentile according to the general norms presented by Reynolds and Kamphaus (2004), and both variables had a wide range of scores (see Tabular array 1).

Tabular array ane

Descriptive Statistics

Variable	M	SD	Minimum	Maximum
i. Pre-k CBCL Externalizinga	52.34	nine.23	30.00	76.00
two. Pre-k Surgency/Extraversiona	4.76	0.62	ii.88	half dozen.61
iii. Kindergarten social preferenceb	−0.01	0.95	−ii.xvi	ii.16
4. Kindergarten perceived credencec	3.03	0.65	1.33	4.00
5. Kindergarten BASC Hyperactivityd	47.91	ix.99	34.00	85.00
vi. Kindergarten BASC Aggressiond	47.83	9.29	37.00	84.00
7. Kindergarten "fights"b	0.04	0.98	−1.81	ii.92
viii. Kindergarten "acts wild"b	0.04	0.96	−1.46	2.91
9. Kindergarten Surgency/Extraversiona	4.83	0.63	3.05	6.47

Procedures

Pre-k assessment

When children were approximately 4.5 years erstwhile, children and their mothers completed a battery of tasks and questionnaires in the laboratory. The measure of interest for this study was a questionnaire assessing temperament. Mothers also completed a mensurate of externalizing behavior at this visit that was used as a control variable.

Kindergarten assessment

Approximately 1 year later, we obtained consent from the families to consummate an assessment in the child's kindergarten classroom. Children were either 5 or 6 years old at the fourth dimension of the kindergarten cess. At this time, we obtained an assessment of the child's social status by interviewing peers in the classroom. This assessment did not take place until the children had at to the lowest degree 8 weeks in the classroom to get acclimated to their peers, and only children with parental consent were interviewed. Trained graduate and undergraduate students interviewed each child individually. The sociometric procedures used were a modified version of the Coie et al. (1982) original procedure. Instead of asking children to nominate three peers they "liked most" and "liked least," children were asked to give unlimited nominations for each category. This method allows for more than reliable results and a reduction in measurement fault (Terry, 2000). Furthermore, this increased precision tin be accomplished with fewer classmates than are needed for the limited-choice nominations (Terry, 2000). The hateful rate of participation across classrooms was 84% (range = 68%–94%; number of reporters = viii–22), which is well within the acceptable range (Keane & Calkins, 2004). Sociometric data were collected in 158 classrooms for the electric current sample. The average number of students in a form was 20 (range = 10–27). Cantankerous-gender nominations were permitted to increase the stability of measurement for the nominations to make up one's mind peer status. To ensure that the children had a proficient understanding of the questions, we asked them to go through several sample questions until they understood the job, and provided pictures of all of the participating children as visual prompts. Interviewers were trained to provide farther data and more examples if the kid did non seem to grasp the questions. In improver to sociometric nominations, teachers were besides asked to fill out several questionnaires on the target child to assess the kid's social, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral operation in the school setting. During the same year, when children were approximately 5.5 years old, mothers and their children were also asked to come up back to the laboratory for another visit like to the pre-k visit. Perceived peer acceptance and child temperament were measured at this time.

Measures

Pre-k externalizing beliefs

Mother-reported pre-k externalizing beliefs measured by the CBCL (CBCL 4–18; Achenbach, 1991) was used as a control variable in all regression analyses. The broadband Externalizing subscale was used as a parent-report measure out of externalizing beliefs issues. The modest subscales of Aggression (twenty items) and Malversation (13 items) make upwardly the overall Externalizing subscale, including items such equally "argues a lot" and "gets in many fights." Each item was rated on a iii-point scale. The CBCL is widely used and has been plant to exist valid and reliable (Achenbach, 1991; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001). 1-week test–retest reliability was .93 (Achenbach, 1991). Cronbach'south α (.88) for the Externalizing subscale in the current study was good.

Pre-chiliad and kindergarten temperament

The mensurate that was used to predict externalizing beliefs in kindergarten was maternal report of the kid's pre-k temperament on the Kid Beliefs Questionnaire (CBQ; Rothbart, Ahadi, & Hershey, 1994). The CBQ was also administered at the kindergarten cess as a control variable and to assess the stability of kid temperament over fourth dimension. The CBQ is a 195-detail questionnaire, requiring mothers to rate their kid'southward behavior on a 7-indicate Likert scale ranging from 1 = extremely untrue to 7 = extremely true. The broad temperamental dimension of Surgency/Extraversion was the focus of the present report. The score for Surgency/Extraversion was obtained by taking the hateful of the post-obit CBQ subscales (each 13 items): High Activity Level, High-Intensity Pleasure, Impulsivity, and Shyness, which was reverse-scored; Cronbach'due south α = .71 (pre-k), .69 (kindergarten); computed on the 4 subscales. Sample items included in the Surgency/Extraversion composite are "is full of energy, even in the evening" and "likes rough and rowdy games."

Kindergarten sociometric nominations

A social preference score was obtained from the sociometric procedures. The full number of nominations for "like nigh" and "like least" were standardized to obtain two separate z scores, which were subsequently subtracted to compose a social preference score (z "like about" – z "like least" = social preference; Coie et al., 1982). Social preference was again standardized inside classrooms after computing the difference score. Lower scores represented less likeability or overall peer condition in the classroom, whereas college scores represented greater likeability. This is a widely used technique for assessing a child'southward overall likeability or peer acceptance within the classroom (Jiang & Cillessen, 2005). In add-on, standardized peer-nominated "fights" and "acts wild" were used equally a peer report of child aggression and hyperactivity, respectively.

Kindergarten perceived credence

Perceived acceptance was measured past the Pictorial Calibration of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children (Harter & Thruway, 1984) during the kindergarten assessment. This calibration assessed children's perceptions of their peer acceptance, cognitive competence, physical competence, and maternal acceptance. Perceived peer acceptance was the construct used for this study. Sample items for this subscale include "has lots of friends" and "gets asked to play past others." A trained graduate pupil read each detail out loud to the children while showing a corresponding picture. Each item was scored on a 4-signal scale. The children were asked to decide which of two descriptors (east.k., "I have lots of friends" or "I don't have lots of friends") practical more to them and to indicate whether that statement was "sort of true" or "really truthful." The final perceived peer credence score was obtained by computing the mean score for vi questions pertaining to the child'southward perception of peer acceptance (Cronbach'south α = .74). This mensurate was found to be valid for children in preschool and kindergarten (Harter & Pike, 1984).

Kindergarten externalizing behavior

The outcome examined was teacher-reported externalizing behavior measured past the Behavioral Assessment Arrangement for Children–Instructor Rating Calibration (BASC-TRS; Reynolds & Kamphaus, 1992). The BASC-TRS is a tool that is widely used for diagnostic assessment and is gender-and age-normed using standardized t scores. Teachers were asked to complete either the 2.5- to 5-year-old BASC-TRS (109 items; 71% of participants) or the half-dozen- to 11-year-erstwhile BASC-TRS (148 items; 29% of participants), depending on the child'southward age at the time of the kindergarten assessment. The half-dozen- to 11-year-old BASC-TRS has more items considering information technology is assessing additional constructs. The Hyperactivity (2.5–5 BASC: 10 items; six–11 BASC: 13 items; e.yard., "acts out of command," "cannot wait to have plow") and Aggression (2.5–v BASC: 12 items; half-dozen–xi BASC: fourteen items; e.g., "hits other children," "bullies others") subscales were used to assess two types of externalizing behaviors. The frequency of occurrence for each item was rated on a 4-point scale (never, sometimes, ofttimes, almost e'er). The internal consistency, reliability, and validity for the BASC-TRS have been well established (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 1992). Cronbach'due south α for the Hyperactivity (two.five–5 BASC-TRS, α = .91; half dozen–xi BASC-TRS, α = .ninety) and Aggression (two.five–5 BASC-TRS, α = .90; 6–11 BASC-TRS, α = .92) sub-scales in the current study were fantabulous.

Results

Overview

Analyses are presented in four steps. First, intercorrelations and descriptive statistics among the variables of interest are examined. Following this stride, the interaction of pre-thou Surgency/Extraversion with kindergarten social preference and kindergarten perceived acceptance is examined as information technology predicts kindergarten hyperactivity and assailment using two hierarchical linear regressions. Third, parallel hierarchical linear regressions are completed with kindergarten peer-nominated "acts wild" and "fights" every bit outcomes. Finally, in the fourth footstep, an additional model is presented to examine a competing hypothesis. Namely, the interaction betwixt pre-k Surgency/Extraversion and kindergarten externalizing behavior (i.e., hyperactivity, assailment, "acts wild," and "fights") equally information technology predicts social preference and perceived acceptance is examined. Significant interactions are further investigated according to methods outlined by Aiken and West (1991). To explore gender differences, nosotros ran all regressions separately past gender. Prior to each assay, all continuous main furnishings were centered based on means inside gender before creating interaction terms.

Descriptive Statistics and Intercorrelations

Descriptive statistics for the report variables are presented in Table 1. The skewness values for all variables were less than or equal to 1.1. A multivariate analysis revealed that there were no significant differences amidst the outcome variables in terms of minority status, F(4, 195) = 1.36, p = ns. In that location were, however, differences in terms of gender, F(four, 195) = 33.43, p < .000. Namely, girls had lower "fights" (girls: Grand = −0.38, SD = 0.69; boys: Thousand = 0.55, SD = 1.05; Cohen's d = −one.05) and "acts wild" (girls: M = −0.42, SD = 0.67; boys: M = 0.lx, SD = 0.97; Cohen'southward d = −1.22) scores. Bivariate correlations also indicated that there were no significant furnishings of SES on the variables of interest. Intercorrelations amidst the written report variables are presented in Tabular array 2. As expected, pre-1000 Surgency/Extraversion was positively associated with kindergarten externalizing behavior. Information technology is also noteworthy that Surgency/Extraversion is a highly stable construct across the pre-k and kindergarten assessments (r = .81, p < .001). There was no association between kindergarten social preference and kindergarten perceived acceptance. There was, however, a negative association between kindergarten social preference and kindergarten externalizing behavior (i.e., hyperactivity, aggression, "acts wild," and "fights") and a positive association between kindergarten perceived acceptance and kindergarten externalizing behavior (i.e., hyperactivity, assailment, and "acts wild").

Table 2

Correlations Amongst Variables

Variable	1	two	3	4	5	6	7	8	nine
i. Pre-k externalizing	—
two. Pre-k surgency	.25***	—
iii. K social preference	−.18*	−.21**	—
four. K perceived acceptance	.03	.07	.00	—
5. Yard hyperactivity	.24**	.34***	−.31***	.32***	—
vi. Chiliad aggression	.30***	.20**	−.38***	.25***	.65***	—
7. 1000 "fights"	.xx**	.22**	−.47***	.12	.26***	.35***	—
8. K "acts wild"	.08	.29***	−.39***	.xvi*	.50***	.38***	.61***	—
9. K surgency	.18*	.81***	−.21**	.sixteen*	.35***	.24**	.22**	.thirty***	—

Regressions Predicting Kindergarten Hyperactivity and Aggression

Ane hypothesis of the current study was that kindergarten social preference and perceived credence would moderate the association between pre-thousand Surgency/Extraversion and kindergarten externalizing behavior. To examine this question, nosotros completed four hierarchical linear regressions with standardized betas and change in R ² for each step presented in Table 3. The dependent variables for the regression analyses were kindergarten teacher-reported hyperactivity and aggression. Regressions were computed separately for boys and girls. Pre-k parent-reported externalizing behavior and kindergarten Surgency/Extraversion were entered in the first step as command variables. Step 2 included the principal effects for pre-yard Surgency/Extraversion, kindergarten social preference, and kindergarten perceived acceptance. Stride 3 included the following interactions: Pre-k Surgency/Extraversion × Kindergarten Social Preference, Pre-thousand Surgency/Extraversion × Kindergarten Perceived Acceptance, and Kindergarten Social Preference × Kindergarten Perceived Acceptance. Finally, Step 4 included the three-manner interaction combining pre-k Surgency/Extraversion, kindergarten social preference, and kindergarten perceived acceptance.

Table 3

Hierarchical Regressions Examining Social Preference and Perceived Acceptance As Moderators Between Pre-Yard Surgency/Extraversion and Kindergarten Behaviors

	Kindergarten outcomes
	Hyperactivity		Aggression		"Acts wild"		"Fights"
Predictor	Girls	Boys	Girls	Boys	Girls	Boys	Girls	Boys
Step i	(.16***)	(.14**)	(.08*)	(.19***)	(.09**)	(.07*)	(.02)	(.15***)
Pre-k CBCL Externalizing	.x	.16	.16†	.27**	.06	−.12	−.01	.21*
Thousand Surgency/Extraversion	.02	.12	.07	.16	.29*	−.02	.09	.02
Step 2	(.sixteen***)	(.11**)	(.14**)	(.15**)	(.nineteen***)	(.21***)	(.14**)	(.28***)
Pre-chiliad Surgency/Extraversion	.26†	.09	.01	−.01	−.16	.23	−.09	.05
K Social Preference	−.20*	−.21*	−.31**	−.30**	−.37***	−.43***	−.39***	−.51***
K Perceived Acceptance	.30**	.24*	.21*	.22**	.16†	.04	.10	.10
Footstep three	(.07*)	(.03)	(.01)	(.01)	(.09**)	(.04)	(.09*)	(.01)
Pre-k Surgency × K Social Preference	−.16*	.05	−.03	−.02	−.15†	.08	.14	−.04
Pre-k Surgency × K Perceived Credence	.19*	.19†	.08	.07	−.04	.18†	−.17†	.05
M Social Preference × M Perceived Acceptance	−.08	−.08	−.01	−.07	−.26**	−.09	−.29**	−.12
Step four	(.00)	(.02)	(.00)	(.01)	(.03*)	(.00)	(.00)	(.01)
Pre-grand Surgency × K Social Preference × K Perceived Acceptance	−.06	.14	−.06	.12	−.eighteen*	.00	−.07	.ten
Total R 2	.39***	.30***	.23**	.36***	.40***	.32***	.25**	.45***

When kindergarten teacher-reported hyperactivity was examined as the upshot of these steps, the main furnishings for kindergarten social preference and perceived credence were significant predictors. These primary effects, nonetheless, were qualified for girls only past significant ii-way interactions between pre-m Surgency/Extraversion and kindergarten social preference and betwixt pre-thousand Surgency/Extraversion and kindergarten perceived acceptance. The overall hyperactivity model explained 39% of the variance for girls and thirty% of the variance for boys.

The significant ii-manner interactions were explored following methods outlined by Aiken and W (1991). The offset ii-way interaction was depicted in Figure 1 past plotting the regression of hyperactivity (y) on pre-one thousand Surgency/Extraversion (x) as a function of 2 values of social preference, Z _L and Z _H (i.east., one standard divergence below the hateful, ane standard deviation above the mean). Unstandardized B was used to calculate the regression lines. From the graph information technology is apparent that children with low social preference scores accept the steepest gradient across different levels of pre-k Surgency/Extraversion. The highest kindergarten hyperactivity score was amid children with high pre-1000 Surgency/Extraversion and depression kindergarten social preference. Like to the get-go interaction, the 2d two-way interaction was depicted in Figure ii by plotting the regression of hyperactivity (y) on pre-k Surgency/Extraversion (x) as a function of ii values of perceived acceptance, Z _L and Z _H. The graph shows that hyperactivity varies at different levels of pre-one thousand Surgency/Extraversion merely in the context of high kindergarten perceived acceptance.

The interaction betwixt pre-kindergarten Surgency/Extraversion and kindergarten social preference as information technology predicts girls' kindergarten hyperactivity.

The interaction betwixt pre-kindergarten Surgency/Extraversion and kindergarten perceived acceptance as information technology predicts girls' kindergarten hyperactivity.

The next step was to decide whether the slopes of the lines plotted in Figure 1 and Figure 2 were different from cipher, as outlined by Aiken and Westward (1991). For the first graph, two new variables were created, Z _cvh and Z _cvl, such that each variable reflected the social preference score minus Z _H and Z _Fifty, respectively. The cantankerous-product of each new variable with pre-k Surgency/Extraversion (x) was computed. Finally, hyperactivity was regressed on pre-g Surgency/Extraversion, the provisional values of social preference (i.east., Z _cvh, Z _cvl), and each cantankerous-production in two separate regression analyses. The resulting t tests for the betas indicated the slope for low social preference was significantly different from aught, B = 5.56, β = .38, t(106) = ii.00, p < .05, just the slope for high social preference was non significantly different from zero, B = −0.37, β = −.03, t(106) = −0.fifteen, p = ns. To test the lines in Figure 2, we computed similar analyses using provisional values of perceived acceptance. Results revealed the slope for loftier perceived acceptance was significantly different from zero, B = vii.24, β = .49, t(106) = ii.81, p < .01, whereas the slope for low perceived credence was not, B = 0.13, β = .01, t(106) = 0.05, p = ns.

When kindergarten aggression was examined as the event (Tabular array 3), the principal effects of kindergarten social preference and perceived acceptance were again significant predictors for boys and girls. In contrast to the regression examining hyperactivity, at that place were no significant two-way or three-mode interactions when predicting assailment. The overall assailment model explained 23% of the variance for girls and 36% of the variance for boys.

Regressions Predicting Kindergarten "Acts Wild" and "Fights"

To confirm the results presented with kindergarten teacher-reported hyperactivity and assailment, we examined kindergarten peer nominations of "acts wild" and "fights" as additional measures of hyperactivity and aggression. The steps entered in the previous regressions were identical to the steps entered when "acts wild" and "fights" were examined equally outcomes (Table 3).

Similar to the regression examining instructor-reported hyperactivity, kindergarten social preference significantly predicted kindergarten peer-nominated "acts wild." These chief furnishings were qualified for girls but by a significant three-way interaction among pre-k Surgency/Extraversion, kindergarten social preference, and kindergarten perceived acceptance. The model accounted for forty% of the variance for girls and 32% of the variance for boys.

The significant 3-way interaction was explored following methods outlined by Aiken and West (1991), similar to the graphing procedures presented in the previous section. From the graph it is apparent that girls with inflated perceived credence (i.e., high perceived acceptance, low social preference) have the highest "acts wild" scores (Figure three). In contrast, having accurately high perceived acceptance (i.e., high perceived acceptance, high social preference) appears to serve as a protective factor for girls with loftier pre-kindergarten Surgency/Extraversion, as these children have the lowest "acts wild" scores.

The iii-mode interaction with pre-kindergarten Surgency/Extraversion, kindergarten social preference, and kindergarten perceived credence as it predicts girls' kindergarten "acts wild."

The next step was to determine whether the slopes of the lines plotted in Figure 3 were unlike from zero. Analyses were similar to those presented in the previous section and followed guidelines outlined by Aiken and W (1991). The resulting t tests for the betas indicated that only the slope for girls with accurately high perceived acceptance was marginally different from goose egg, B = −0.42, β = −.40, t(102) = −1.93, p < .06.

Similar to the regression predicting aggression, the primary effect of kindergarten social preference significantly predicted kindergarten peer-nominated "fights" (Table three). For girls, the interaction between kindergarten social preference and kindergarten perceived acceptance significantly predicted "fights," with girls reporting inflated perceived acceptance having the highest "fights" scores. When all steps were included, 25% of the variance in "fights" was explained for girls and 45% of the variance was explained for boys.

Competing Hypothesis

Given that the moderators (i.eastward., social preference and perceived acceptance) and result variables (i.due east., hyperactivity, aggression, "acts wild," and "fights") were assessed during the same twelvemonth, it could exist argued that the kindergarten externalizing behaviors examined moderate the relation betwixt pre-k Surgency/Extraversion and kindergarten peer acceptance (i.e., social preference and perceived acceptance) instead of peer acceptance moderating the relation betwixt Surgency/Extraversion and externalizing behavior. To exam this competing hypothesis, we computed two divide hierarchical linear regressions for girls simply because the previous analyses revealed interactions for girls but not for boys. Kindergarten social preference was the dependent variable for the showtime regression, and kindergarten perceived acceptance was the dependent variable for the second regression. Pre-k parent-reported externalizing behavior and kindergarten Surgency/Extraversion were entered in the first step equally control variables. Pre-k Surgency/Extraversion, kindergarten hyperactivity, and kindergarten "acts wild" were included in Stride 2. Both ii-mode interactions between pre-1000 Surgency/Extraversion and the kindergarten externalizing behaviors were entered in Step two. Results revealed the main effect for kindergarten "acts wild" significantly predicted kindergarten social preference, β = −.33, t(102) = −3.eleven, p < .01, and the primary result for kindergarten hyperactivity significantly predicted kindergarten perceived acceptance, β = .33, t(102) = ii.92, p < .01. None of the 2-mode interactions were significant. Thus, externalizing behavior did not moderate the relation between pre-one thousand Surgency/Extraversion and kindergarten peer acceptance (i.e., social preference and perceived acceptance).

Give-and-take

The goal of this study was to examine possible moderating factors in the relation between pre-k Surgency/Extraversion and kindergarten externalizing beliefs. In particular, the part of kindergarten perceived credence and kindergarten social preference as protective factors were of interest. Consistent with previous literature, pre-k mother-reported temperamental Surgency/Extraversion was positively associated with kindergarten instructor-reported externalizing behavior (i.e., hyperactivity, aggression) and kindergarten peer-nominated externalizing behavior (i.e., "acts wild," "fights"). That is, children who were identified by mothers in pre-k equally being highly active were at risk for exhibiting behavior problems in the kindergarten classroom. Children who are very agile and accept a high approach trend continue to showroom these exuberant behaviors, at times in a maladaptive manner, and exhibit anger, frustration, and aggression when their goals to explore are blocked. Given the highly active and at times aggressive nature of children high on Surgency/Extraversion, it is not surprising that these children were less well liked by their peers, evidenced past the negative correlation betwixt pre-thou Surgency/Extraversion and kindergarten social preference.

Information technology is noteworthy that there was not a meaning correlation between social preference and perceived acceptance, indicating that children's perceptions do not always coincide with peer nominations of their behavior. Brown and Kafer (1994) constitute that there was a dramatic increase in self-awareness effectually age 7 or 8. The kindergarteners in our sample were reporting perceived credence prior to this time, resulting in a greater range in the extent to which children's perceptions correlated with peer nominations. Some children may exaggerate their acceptance to self-protect confronting negative feedback from peers, consequent with the theory Hughes et al. (1997) proposed to explicate the inflated perceived acceptance of aggressive children. Conversely, the exaggerated perception may too brand it less likely that children would internalize negative peer feedback, as it would be inconsistent with their perceptions. On the other terminate of the spectrum, children who report low perceived acceptance may have internalizing difficulties, which accounts for their low perceived acceptance scores and may too buffer against externalizing difficulties.

Consistent with our hypothesis, pre-k Surgency/Extraversion interacted with kindergarten social preference and kindergarten perceived acceptance when predicting peer-nominated "acts wild" for girls only. Girls with inflated perceived acceptance (i.e., loftier perceived acceptance, depression social preference) had the highest "acts wild" scores regardless of early surgency. Whereas the high perception could be the result of a defensive mechanism (Hughes et al., 1997), it has also been theorized that social data-processing deficits could be implicated. Children who have difficulty agreement their social worlds would be less equipped to accurately perceive, internalize, and modify behavior based on behavioral feedback from peers. Moreover, children who are rejected and are not expressing sensation of this rejection may be less motivated to change their negative beliefs when presented with feedback because of their deprival of the problematic behavior. This denial is consistent with a written report examining peer status and attribution biases that found rejected children were more likely to attribute their social failures to external causes (Crick & Ladd, 1993). Similarly, children in an inpatient psychiatric unit of measurement who had high self-esteem were more than probable to study fewer interpersonal problems compared to children with moderate self-esteem despite being more likely to be rejected past peers (Perez, Pettit, David, Kistner, & Joiner, 2001). With respect to motivation, Guerra et al. (2004) found that ambitious children with self-blaming attributions were more likely to have a subtract in aggression over fourth dimension compared to aggressive children with peer-blaming attributions.

In addition, the 3-way interaction revealed that having an accurately high perceived acceptance (high perceived acceptance, high social preference) was a protective gene for girls exhibiting high Surgency/Extraversion. Girls who are accepted by peers have more than social opportunities to acquire and develop social skills through modeling, practice, and behavioral feedback (Price, 1996). These social skills would include learning that externalizing beliefs, such as being inappropriately agile, is not tolerated by peers. When children accept a more difficult temperament, they may be able to larn appropriate ways of displaying their behavior then that it is not disruptive by mimicking their peers' self-regulatory strategies. The results from this written report showed that girls who recognize their high social preference are able to lower their disruptive social behavior, suggesting that recognition of peer status facilitates the learning process. Moreover, girls who are able to accurately recognize their peer condition may have other social cognitive skills that also serve as protective factors.

The 3-way interaction predicting "acts wild" was partially corroborated past 2 significant 2-manner interactions when predicting girls' teacher-reported hyperactivity. Namely, surgency interacted with kindergarten social preference and with kindergarten perceived acceptance. Follow-upwardly analyses revealed that having low social preference and high perceived acceptance resulted in the highest levels of hyperactivity when the child had loftier, pre-kindergarten Surgency/Extraversion. Information technology will be important to examine like models with a larger sample to determine if the three-style interaction predicting hyperactivity was not meaning due to a lack of ability.

It is besides noteworthy that Surgency/Extraversion was chastened past social preference and perceived acceptance for girls simply. Perhaps peer acceptance was plant to be a protective factor for girls only because young girls have better social understanding than boys (Dunn, Brown, Slomkowski, Tesla, & Youngblade, 1991). Therefore, girls may be improve equipped to observe and incorporate behavioral feedback from peers, which would eternalize the protective effects of increased social interactions.

There are several novel features of this study. Outset, multiple reporters were used to reduce reporter biases when examining the relation betwixt factors. As such, parent report was used to measure the predictor variable of child temperamental Surgency/Extraversion, peer and self study were used to assess peer acceptance, and teacher written report and peer nominations were used to assess the effect of externalizing behavior. In addition to multiple reporters, this study employed a longitudinal design to assess the furnishings of early temperamental risk on later beliefs bug. The longitudinal blueprint, in addition to controlling for pre-chiliad beliefs problems and kindergarten Surgency/Extraversion, helped us to empathize developmental pathways linking pre-m temperament to kindergarten beliefs bug.

There are also several important implications that event from this written report. Although temperament is related to behavior problems in the classroom, there are many environmental factors that allow children to express themselves in a prosocial manner. One such protective factor is the peer environment. In addition to peer nominations, the child's perception of that environment is also valuable data. This study provides evidence that environmental fit can offering a good opportunity for children to appropriately manage their behavior.

Although the findings support the protective effects of perceived acceptance and social preference, several limitations should exist considered. Offset, the presence of perceived acceptance and social preference were shown to be moderators in the relation between Surgency/Extraversion and externalizing behavior; however, low perceived acceptance and high social preference could exist markers of other private factors that are facilitating the protective effects. For example, children with high perceived credence and low social preference may have fewer social skills, which may account for the exacerbated relation between Surgency/Extraversion and externalizing behavior for this group. However, in a like study that looked at the protective effects of peer credence, neither social information processing nor child temperament fully explained the moderating furnishings (Criss et al., 2002). Second, the moderator and outcome variables were all measured during the kindergarten twelvemonth. Every bit such, the possibility that externalizing behavior could also exist a moderator in the relation between Surgency/Extraversion and peer acceptance was considered. This interaction was not found to exist significant, providing support for the model that was presented. Finally, our measures of peer-nominated and self-reported acceptance did non let for a specific measure of accuracy. Namely, we were unable to establish if children accurately identified the peers who nominated them for the "liked most" and "liked least" categories. Instead, nosotros used a global measure out of perceived acceptance; therefore, we were unable to determine if children with inflated perceived acceptance were inaccurate in the perceptions of acceptance at the dyadic level.

Future research could examine whether children with low perceived acceptance are more probable to experience internalizing symptoms such every bit depression or anxiety. The specific mechanisms that account for the protective effects of perceived acceptance and social preference could be examined. Looking at early predictors of consistent and inconsistent perceptions could also help shed low-cal on mechanisms of the protective effects. In addition, the part of children'southward perceived acceptance as a moderator for other relations should be explored.

The present study suggests that peers tin provide remedial back up for children exhibiting high Surgency/Extraversion prior to kindergarten. Like to findings of previous inquiry, nosotros found that high social preference buffers against early temperamental adventure for hyperactivity. Although peers tin human action equally a protective factor, the story is non complete without likewise because children'southward perceptions of their peer condition. Girls who exhibited inflated perceived credence had the highest levels of peer-nominated "acts wild" scores, whereas having an accurately high perceived credence acted as a protective gene for girls' early Surgency/Extraversion.

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by National Plant of Mental Health (NIMH) Grants MH 55625 and MH 58144 to Susan D. Calkins and NIMH Grant MH 55584 to Susan P. Keane and Susan D. Calkins. The authors thank Kathryn Degnan, Paulo Graziano, Rachael Reavis, Elizabeth Shuey, Caitlin Stone, and David Topor for their invaluable help with data collection. We too thank the families who generously gave their time to participate in this research.

Contributor Information

Louise Eastward. Berdan, Department of Psychology, University of N Carolina at Greensboro.

Susan P. Keane, Department of Psychology, Academy of North Carolina at Greensboro.

Susan D. Calkins, Departments of Human Development and Family Studies and Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro.

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Rothbart And Bates Temperament Categories,

Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2773664/

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